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Introduction

Various attempts have been made (,Reynolds, 1983, Jenkinset al1987; Gunz and Hoffman, 1990; Marinoniet al, 2001; Toom-Sauntry and Barrie, 2002; Rohrboughet al2003; Walkeretal2003年康et al2005) to document the chemicalcomposition of snow in different parts of the world. However, except for sporadic studies (,Naiket al1995; Sarfarazet al2001; Lone and Khan 2007) research on snow chemistry of mountain- clad Kashmir Himalayan valley has been ignored. In order to remedy this deficiency in environmental chemistry of the region, an attempt has been made to analyze the hydrochemistry of fresh snow samples collected from various sites spread in six districts of Kashmir valley.

Material and Methods

Sampling Sites

The Kashmir valley of Jammu and Kashmir State is situated between 32⁰17’ - 37⁰15’ N and 72⁰40’ - 80⁰30’ E and occupies a strategic position in the north of India. Srinagar city, the summer capital of J&K State is located at an average altitude of 1500-1600 m asl and its atmosphere receives inputs mainly from automobiles and small - scale industries.The three sampling sites viz Lal Chowk, HMT area and Shalimar were selected in the district Srinagar. Whereas, the atmosphere of former two sites remains polluted with automobile emissions and the operation of small-scale industrial units, the other one is relatively a non-polluted area. The other sampling sites viz; Rafiabad, Dragmulla, Tral, Magam and Anantnag spread in various parts of Kashmir valley are located in district Baramulla, Kupwatra, Pulwama, Budgam and Anantnag respectively.

The winter season in Kashmir valley extends from Dec- Feb and is marked by cloudy and cold weather. On an average 7-8 winter disturbances pass east- wards in winter months affecting the northern most part of India. These disturbances are accompanied by continuous rain and appreciably low temperature, helping the formation of snow and ice in these regions(Naik etal, 1995),大约有50%的这些影响the region covering Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and the hills of western Uttar Pradesh and Uttranchal. The snowfall recorded at Agrometerological Observatory Shalimar (SKUAST- K) Kashmir during the winter of December, 2004 and Feb. 2005 is given in Table 1.

Table 1: Snowfall recorded at Agro-meteorological Observatory SKUAST-K, Shalimar Click here to view table

Sampling Procedure and Analytical Methods

The fresh snow samples were collected from various sampling sites on the dates shown in Table 2. The snow samples were collected with a glass cylinder 40 cm long and 5 cm diameter.

Each sample was melted in the plastic tub covered with a glass sheet pre-cleaned with deionized water and allowed to reach ambient room temperature. After melting, the snow water was transferred into a 1 liter capacity polythene bottles which was sealed and returned to the laboratory for analysis.

雪,融化的pH值测量by using electronic digital pH meter (Systronics 327). Methods recommended by Mackereth (1963)and the American Public Health Association (1992) were used for various physical and chemical variables. The Cl content was determined tritrimatrically against AgNO₃and total alkalinity was estimated against standard solution of H₂SO_.Dissolved oxygen (DO) was determined by Winkler’s reagent and titrated against standard solution of Na₂S₂0₃,. Nitrate-nitrogen was estimated spectrophotometrically following phenol- disulphonic acid method, while sulphate was determined by the turbidimetric method. Silicate content was also determined colorimetrically by using acid-molybdate solution. Analysis of cations (Ca and Mg) was done titrametrically using Na₂EDTA (disodium dihydrogen ethylene diamine-tetraacetate).

Table 2: Date of collection of fresh snow samples from variou sites of Kashmir Click here to view table

Results and Discussion

The average concentration of pH and dissolved oxygen content, and major ionic forms of the snow samples collected from different sites of Kashmir valley are given in Table 3. The data indicate that the pH of the snow samples was the lowest (5.84) in HMT area of Srinagar city ,and for other sites pH values ranged from 6.2 (Anantnag) to 7.31 (Shalimar). The reference level commonly used to compare acid precipitation to natural precipitation is pH 5.6, the pH that results from the equilibration of CO₂with precipitation. This reference level has been chosen because of the ubiquity of CO₂in the global atmosphere and because of the absence of data on other acids or basics (Naiket al1995).However, Gallowayet al(1982) believethat there is no single natural pH of precipitation applicable to the whole globe, but rather several natural values, each unique to a region, the size of a continent or an ocean. The lowest values for pH in the snow samples of the HMT area could be attributed to the presence of higher concentration of species like NO₃and SO₄in the atmosphere of this region due to the operation of small- scale industrial units involving burning of coal, oil and timber.

The chloride content and total alkalinity in the snow samples ranged from 15-28 and 2.-3 mg L^-1分别在不同区域的克什米尔谷地and suggest a strong influence of alkaline dust particles which might have originated from Indian plains and arid zones in the west and have been transported to the region by south westerly, winds (Naiket al1995). The data also indicate that dissolved oxygen content in the snow samples collected from different sites of Kashmir valley ranged from 22-24 mg L^-1and suggests a fairly good concentration of O₂in the atmosphere.

Table 3: Data on important chemical variables of fresh snow samples, Kashmir (Except for pH, all values in mg L-1). Click here to view table

High concentration of NO₃(3.9 mg L^-1) and SO₄(8 mg L^-1) were recorded in the HMT area compared to other sites. Since SO₂and NO₂are mainly derived from anthropogenic sources, the high levels of these species in the snow samples of HMT area are likely to be due to industrial activity in the area. The other sites (e.g. Lal Chowk ) has significantly higher traffic-flow with appreciably higher NO_xconcentration in the atmosphere. However, during night time, the traffic usually remains off the road and consequently snow recorded lesser concentration of these species as the snowfall was recorded during the night hours. Under natural conditions, nitrate particles of submicron size in the atmosphere may be formed by gas to particle conversion process(Cox,1974).Under normal atmospheric conditions, HNO₃can initially form Aitken nuclei which will grow rapidly into a submicron sizes and react with NH₄to NH₄NO₃. This reaction is reversible and temperature dependent (Wolff, 1984).The formation of NH₄NO₃in tropical countries is rare due to persistence of higher temperature. However, HNO₃can react with soil derived or some industrial particulates and become incorporated in snow as the coarse aerosol mode (Wolff, 1984). It is also clear from the data that the other sites( viz. Shalimar, Rafiabad, Tral, Magam and Anantnag) have almost negligible traffic-flow and consequently low concentrations of the NO₃and SO₄were observed during the present study.

The data also reveal that HMT site recorded low content of Ca²(12 mg L^-1)and Mg (8 mg L^-1) . However, highest values were observed in Lal Chowk area ( Ca=28.05 and Mg= 16.5 mg L^-1). For other sites (Table 3), the values differed markedly; Anantnag ( Ca=13 mg L^-1) and Shalimar/ Tral (Ca=20 mg L-1). The Magnesium content fluctuated narrowly between 10-12 mg L-1 for the sites. The influence of alkaline components on the pH of the rain, cloud and fog water in India has been reported earlier (Khemaniet al1987 ). The higher concentration of alkaline components (Ca and Mg) are responsible for the higher pH of precipitation in India and the alkaline pH in the snow samples collected from Lal Chowk, Shalimar, Rafiabad, Dragmulla, Tral, Magam and

Anantnag is consistent with these observations. The presence of appreciably higher concentration of Ca has also been reported in the snow samples of Mt. Everest by Marinoniet al(2001).Other related studies have also shown higher ionic concentration of Ca in the premonsoon snow and have opined that it may be as a result of dust deposition during the peak dust storm activity mainly in April and May over Asia (Parringtonet al, 1983). On the other hand, relatively low concentration of Ca and Mg in the snow samples collected from HMT area may also be one of the factors responsible for its low pH value.

Conclusion

Analytical research on ionic composition of fresh snow is a useful tool for assessing the environmental impact of air pollution sources as well as the transport and deposition of various air pollutants. The study has indicated the presence of highly appreciable concentration of anions (Cl) total alkalinity, MgSO₄and SiO₃as well as cations (Ca and Mg) in the fresh snow samples collected from different areas of Kashmir valley., The presence of these ions seems directly related to site-specific environmental conditions of the Himalayan region.

References