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Introduction

The mighty Himalaya contains a plentitude of medicinal plants and its habitants possess the knowledge of traditional medicinal plants. Indian Himalaya region (IHR) harbors about 1748 (23.4% of India) plant species recognized for their medicinal values. The higher diversity of medicinal plants in IHR is represented by the occurrence of a variety of native (31%), endemic (15.5%) and threatened elements (14% of total Red Data Book plants of IHR).¹The need of medicinal plants is continuously increasing at local and global levels. Due to the high demand of medicinal plants in the Himalayan region, about 90% are collected from the wild²and around 70% are unscientifically harvested/extracted from wild which enhances the loss on medicinal plant diversity.^{2, 3}

Ever increasing demand of medicinal plants along with the habitat destruction, the world is experiences the principal challenge of minimizing loss of biodiversity^4,5by conservation efforts. Further, few conservationists have tried prioritization of conservation efforts^6,7due to higher number of extinction rate.^8,9Number of medicinal plant species is now described under different threat categories¹⁰and in the immediate future, many species may warrant the declaration of a threatened status until adequate scientific data are available.¹¹Therefore, the key challenge in the sustainability of medicinal plants is to synthesize the data on availability of medicinal plants and prioritization of certain species that require immediate conservation action.^12,13,14,15一系列的研究been conducted on the utilization of medicinal plants in the IHR , viz, Dhar et al.,³, Bisht et al.,^14,Kala^16,17,Gaur¹⁸,Maikhuri et al.,¹⁹, Chandra Sekar and Srivastava²⁰, Chandra Sekar and Rawat²¹, Negi et al.,²²Bisht et al.,²³Joshi and Chandra Sekar²⁴Joshi et al.,²⁵。然而,Pindari地区是没有民主ta-set on diversity of medicinal plants, utilization and conservation efforts. In view of above, we studied the diversity of medicinal plants in Pindari Valley, a buffer zone region of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand.

Objectives of the Study

Keeping all the above in mind and the high use value and conservation importance of medicinal plants, the present attempt has been made to: (i) prepare an inventory of locally occurring medicinal plants through primary survey and secondary literature sources; (ii) identify and score the threatened and high-value medicinal plants (THMPs) based on their ecological (habitat, nativity, endemism and threat status) and socioeconomic values (plant part used, use value, user group and extraction trend); (iii) Prioritize the threatened high-value medicinal plants; (iv) suggest sustainable utilization and conservation strategies for the THMPs.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Pindari Valley (a buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve) is situated in the Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand, Western Himalaya (Figure 1). The total area of the Park is 339.39 km²at latitude 30° 15’ N and longitude 79° 13’ to 80° 02’ E. It lies between the Nanda Devi and Nandakot peaks and the presence of glacier extends from 3600 to 5000 m. The Pindar Valley is named after the Pindar river which emerges from the Pindari Glacier. The valley remains completely covered with snow for six months (early October to March). The entire valley has been considered for documentation of medicinal plant diversity. People traditionally collecting the medicinal plants from the valley resurveyed for recording the presence of medicinal plants. Further, the similar habitats nearby the traditional collection area were also surveyed for getting additional information on availability.

Figure 1: Study Area Map. Click here to view Figure

Questionnaire Survey/ Interviews

A semi-structured questionnaire survey was conducted in two villages namely, Jaitoli and Khati of Pindari Valley in the years 2016-2018 (Figure 1). A total of 42 informants were selected randomly from 32 households for obtaining the utilization patterns. Further, the informants andVaidyas(Medicine men) were also accompanied in the field for correct identification of particular plants, apart from house-hold interview. The complete information on medicinal plants, i.e., parts used and their habitat were collected. The information further cross checked with elderly people /Vaidyasrepeatedly for confirming the utilization patterns.

An Approach for Rapid Threat Assessment (RTA) and Prioritization

For threat assessment, a list of Threatened and High-value Medicinal Plants (THMPs) was developed and rapid threat assessment (RTA) was carried out using Rapid Vulnerability Assessment method followed by Cunningham²⁶, and has been employed successfully by Shrestha and Shrestha²⁷and Pandey et al.,²⁸。We followed an analytical method to prioritize the species of THMPs based on globally standardized criteria. To assess each species, we have used a total of seven ecological & socioeconomic criteria (i.e., habitat, plant part used, use value, user group, extraction trend, nativity, endemism and threat status). An appropriate numerical score ranging from 1 to 4 was assigned to each of these criteria (1 for low and 4 for high threat)^13,26,29。The prioritized species were based on the sum of the scores assigned to each of these criteria (Table 1) as explained in Box 1.

Box 1:Criteria Used and their Detailed Explanation.

Table 1: Threat Assessment Criteria, Categories and Assigned Scores for High-Value Medicinal Plants of Pindari Valley (see Materials and methods for detailed explanation)

最后得分,创建一个完整的列表d and the values of the relevant categories of each species were represented. The species were categorized into four threat categories as shown below (category I representing the most threatened and category IV the least threatened category) on the basis of the final score. For prioritization we used only three categories (Category I, II, & III) for developing effective conservation priorities.

Threat category I ≥28

Threat category II 20–24

Threat category III 15–19

Threat category IV <15

Results

In the present study 42 species of High-value Medicinal Plants (HMPs) were documented on the basis of survey, ethnobotanical utilization and trade / market value (Table 2, Figure 2). Identified HMPs belong to 37 genera and 24 families. Asteraceae and Ranunculaceae are represented by 05 species each; Polygonaceae by 04 species; Apiaceae, Boraginaceae, Rosaceae, Primulaceae, Orchidaceae, Papaveraceae, Melanthiaceae by 02 species each; whereas single species represented Amaryllidaceae, Balsaminaceae, Berberidaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Ericaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Gentianaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Violaceae, Plantaginaceae, Onagraceae and Orobanchaceae (Table 2).

Trade Value and Harvesting of THMPs

Sixteen species of THMPs are traded actively in the study area andAconitum heterophyllumwas recorded to be the highest with a cost up to Rs. 5000 per Kg.Picrorhiza kurrooawas the second highest traded species in the study area with a cost of about Rs. 4500 per Kg. Similarly, bothDactylorhiza hatagireaandParis polyphyllawere traded at the cost of approximately Rs 3600 per Kg. Few important species like,Angelica glaucafetched about Rs 2500-3000 per Kg andTrillium govanianumwas sold at a price about Rs 2200 per Kg.

Rapid Threat Assessment

As per the Rapid Threat Assessment Score system opted in the study, the maximum aggregate score recorded forAconitum heterophyllum(25) clearly indicate the highest threat categorization because of high extraction pressure, maximum number of uses and whole plant being used to treat various diseases and ailments in the study area. This was followed byPicrorhizakurrooawith score 24,Nardostachys jatamansiwithscore of 23 and the four speciesDactylorhiza hatagirea, Angelica glauca, Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, Malaxis musciferathe score of 21 each.Epilobiumangustifoliumscored the minimum (06) and can be considered as least threatened plantdue to facing minimum extraction pressure and used to treat few diseasesamong the medicinal plants of Pindari Valley (Table 3). Out of the total recorded HMPs, 16 plant species were categorized under different threat categories of CAMP; 06 species are under IUCN; 03 species (P。kurrooa, D。hatagirea, S。hexandrum) are in the CITES (Appendix II) and 02 species (P。kurrooa and N。jatamansi) are in RDB (Table 2). Moreover, among the HMPs one species i.e.,Aconitum heterophyllumwas placed under the threat category I, whereas 08 species fell into threat category II, 07 species listed under threat category III and remaining 26 species were placed under least threat category IV (Table 3).

The threat assessment reported that 64% of the HMPs of Pindari Valley grow in grasslands/ alpine pastures, open/alpine slopes while 55% HMPs are native/endemic to Himalaya (Figure 3). In present study area, 48% of these HMPs are harvested by local people (Figure 3). For the preparation of medicines, different parts of HMPs are used (i.e., roots, rhizomes, inflorescences, leaves, bulbs, fruits and tubers) (Table 2). It is obvious that 40% plants utilized the underground portions (e.g., roots, rhizomes, tubers) may harm the life cycle. Further, 12% plant used as whole plants (in combination of both above and below ground portions) for different medicinal purposes, also affects the life of plant. The remaining 48% plants exploited for leaves, seeds, flower, etc. and can be considered sustainable. Around 64% plants are categorized in Least Concern category, but 5% plants have considered in Critically Endangered category (Figure 3).

Prioritisation of THMPs

基于七所选类别的快速的威胁Assessment (RTA), such as habitat, plant used, use value, user group, extraction trend, nativity/endemism, threat status, a total of 16 plant species were identified and placed in three categories on the basis of their cumulative score (Figure 4).

Different parts of HMPs (i.e., roots, rhizomes, inflorescences, leaves, flowers, fruits, and tubers) are used for the preparation of medicines (Table 2). It is obvious that 40% plants utilized the underground portions (e.g.,Aconitum heterophyllumfell under the most threatened category i.e., I. The species under category II of threat having higher scores wereP。kurrooa,N。jatamansi,D。hatagirea,A. glauca,S。hexandrum,M。muscifera,P。polyphyllaandJ。dolomiaea。The species under threat category III wereA。benthami,F。roylei,A. violaceum,M. aculeata,T。govanianum,T。linearisandR。australe。

Table 2: High-Valued Medicinal Plants Recorded from, Pindari Valley, Western Himalaya. Click here to view Table

Abbreviations

Threat Status

CR= Critically Endangered; EN= Endangered; LC= Least Concern; VU= Vulnerable; NT= Near Threatened; NA= Not Evaluated; CAMP= Conservation Assessment and Management Plan; CITES= Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species; IUCN= International Union for Conservation of Nature; RDB= Red Data Book.

Plant Parts Used

Wp= Whole plant; Rt= Root, Lf= leaf; Fl= Flower; Fr= Fruit; Sd= Seed; Tu= Tuber.

表3:分数对那些昂贵的药用植物。 Click here to view Table

Figure 2: Medicinal Plants of Pindari Valley. Click here to view Figure

Figure 3: The Status of THMPs in Seven Threat Assessment Criteria used in the Present Study. Click here to view Figure

Figure 4: Rapid Threat Assessment Score of THMPs and Prioritized Species of Pindari Valley. Click here to view Figure

Discussion

This study revealed extensive information on the high use value of medicinal plants for the first time coupled with information on the level of threat, available conservation initiatives and prioritization based on importance of THMPs in the Pindari valley. Further, it exposes the therapeutic potential of 42 plant species having high potentials to cure different diseases. Among these enumerated plants, 54% (23 plants) were collected as whole plants or their underground parts extracted from the wild for use in herbal medicines and possess immense threat to natural vegetation.^28,37Nine of these species, viz.Aconitum heterophyllum,Arnebiabenthamii,Angelica glauca,Dactylorhiza hatagirea,Fritillaria roylei,Meconopsisaculeata,Picrorhiza kurrooa,Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, andThymus linearishave been already prioritized for conservation in the Indian Himalayan State of Uttarakhand^22,28, and two species namely,Aconitum violaceumandAngelica glaucawere categorized in IUCN categories. It is noticeable that 55% of the total prioritized species are native/ endemic to Himalaya and 2% species are native/ endemic to India. Due to the limited information on these endemic and threatened plants, the conservationists put more attention to authentic documentation, assessment and sustainable utilization towards conservation.³⁸

The continuous increasing demand for these species in the pharmaceutical industries has been known from other regions of Himalaya and resulted depletion of wild resources.^3,28If the same situation like overexploitation proceeds, many species may reduce and eventually disappear from, their natural habitats. This especially applies to medicinal plants found in alpine Himalaya with multiple uses.^39,40Some very prominent medicinal plants in this region namely,Aconitum heterophyllum, Angelica glauca,Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Malaxis muscifera,Paris polyphyllaandPicrorhiza kurrooaare already declining in population³⁸in mountain regions.^{1,16,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48}

As per the present threat categorization,Aconitum heterophyllumis the most threatened species which is falling under threat category I. It is one of the most preferred species of the region, possess high medicinal use^39,45as well as trade value.⁴⁹Thus, the harvesting pressure is predominant threat factors for the species of category I. Further, the species under threat category II having higher scores werePicrorhiza kurrooa,Nardostachys jatamansi,Dactylorhiza hatagirea,Angelica glauca, andSinopodophyllum hexandrum。All these species are preferred not only by residents of the Pindari Valley but also in other parts of Himalayas.^24,25Although some of these species are prohibited for collection, besides of this local people are totally dependent on these medicinal plants due to lack of the healthcare facility in the higher altitude region. All these five species under category II are extracted for their underground parts and are sometimes harvested without leaving any remains of whole plant due to unavailability of scientific knowledge, which prevents further regeneration.²¹Hence, the species of category II mainly suffer from unscientific harvesting for frequently utilization by locals. In third category (category III) recorded byArnebia benthamii,Fritillaria roylei,Aconitum violaceum,Meconopsis aculeata,Trillium govanianum,Thymus linearisandRheum australeare identified as a least threatened species in the study area, in view of less demand in market as well as local level.

The results of this study could direct the local government and stakeholders in determining which species should be targeted at conservation. Nearly two-thirds of the existing priority species in this part of the world have not been evaluated in compliance with IUCN guidelines and therefore deserve urgent conservation assessment.^50,51,52Further, awareness on medicinal plants and conservation education to the local people needs to be provided for better understanding and sustainable utilization of these high-value medicinal plants.

Conclusion

The study revealed a total of 42 high-value medicinal plant species based on rapid threat assessment. Outcomes of the study suggested: (i)Aconitum heterophyllumwith the highest score indicates that this species confronts the highest degree of threat among all the species. (ii) the study concluded that the demand of species, likeAconitum heterophyllum, Angelica glauca, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Nardostachys jatamansi,Sinopodophyllum hexandrum and Paris polyphyllawere high for various therapeutic purpose as well as trade value and needs major prioritization and conservation attention. (iii) providing awareness is an important tool for conservation as proper awareness among the local people is highly required. The threatened species can be promoted through cultivation in local village area for house-hold utilization may also reduce some pressure from wild. Further, the advance scientific techniques by using biotechnology can also be substituted for mass propagation and plantation in natural habitat for conservation. This study is an initial attempt to identify the endangered plant species, as also to draw the attention of conservation biologists, policy makers and researchers to implement conservation measures for these highly valuable plants

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Head, Botany Department, S. S. J. Campus, Kumaun University, Almora for providing necessary facilities and all informers of the study area, especially traditionalVaidyasand experienced persons, for revealing valuable information.

Funding Sources

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of Interest

The authors do not have any conflict of interest.

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