当前世界环境

Introduction

Land use and land cover are the two dissimilar words where landuse refers to occurrence of anthropogenic actions on land(i.e., agriculture, urban, peri-urban, pasture etc.),whereas total vegetative cover on the land surface is regarded as land cover(i.e., forest or desert)．It is widely known that changes in land use and land cover at local and global scales is one of the important driving factors of global climate change.^1,2水and air are the two most important components that intensely influence all types of life on earth and, indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides在农业领域提高农作物产量causing contamination of air and water bodies lead to deterioration of air and water quality. Land use and land cover are important elements in relation to water and air quality. There are different types of land use and land cover, which affect the quality of water and air．Land use impacts water and air quality through non-point sources, which are major sources and contributor of water and air pollution.Changes in land use affected land cover, while changing land cover similarly affects the land use.在植物的生命周期,随着进展,the land cover varied seasonally in natural and agricultural lands. Land cover is very limited in urban areas because of concrete, asphalt and buildings cover on the land’s surface.

Sometimes, natural processes occurred in the environment like various biological, hydrological, meteorological, sedimentation etc. may caused deposition of undesirable compounds, which imbalance the chemistry of water (surface and ground) and air. According to many researchers land use and land cover changes mostly occurred from human development action where land offered unnecessary nutrients and sediments to surface waters.^3,4,5,6In actual fact research on land use and land cover change is multidisciplinary and draw attention of researchers from various fields, like GIS, geography, economics, and demography.Presently, Land-Use and Land-Cover Change (LULCC) is one of the most important causedof global environment change. It is very important to consider both land use and land cover simultaneously in the study of the impacts of land use on the water quality.⁷

The release of reactive N species to water and air affected various life forms on the Earth in a variety of ways⁸such as groundwater pollution due to leaching of (nitrates) NO₃, eutrophication of water bodies, terrestrial eutrophication, which diminished diversity of species, soil acidification, destruction of stratospheric ozone due to N₂O and global warming.^9,10The vegetation destruction and the land use transformation into urban areas identified as to enhance the run off, which also facilitates the transfer of undesirable material from land to aquatic bodies.¹¹Generally, in monsoon season, most of the variables worsened due to increased runoff which carried impurities into the water bodies. Colloidal matter like silt, clay, organic and inorganic matter causes water turbidity and exacerbated the condition of water quality. Therefore, this review article reviewed the workdone by different researchers on landuse effects on water and air quality.

Effects on water quality

In 2005, Vörösmarty described fresh water as a valuable natural resource whose quantity and quality is very important for development of sustainable life.¹²Recently, the quality of water becomes an important issue as human and ecological health directly affected by deteriorated water quality. The use of groundwater and its influence on current water chemistry needs to be accurately described to quantify the temporally varying impacts of land use on water quality. Groundwater recharge is also affected by LULCC in semi-arid or arid areas. In arid and semiarid regions groundwater recharge variations linked with LULCC having negative impacts on groundwater quality as thick unsaturated zones contained salt reservoir that accumulated in surplus of thousands of years^13,14,15Expansion of built-up areas posed direct and indirect threats to the veracity of water bodies.¹⁶Different water pollution problems are associated with different land use pattern and changes. For instance, Tong and Chen in 2002 Ohio State, USA examined the land use interaction with water quality and found that TP (Total Phosphorus) was considerably positively linked to agricultural, commercial and residential areas but non-significant with forest whereas, BOD had a positive relationship with residential and commercial lands, negative connections with forest, but non-significant association with agriculture landuse¹⁷and the transport of surplus nutrients and sediments through various processes like leaching, runoff, volatilization etc. rapidly reach to the water bodies due to lack of vegetative cover.¹⁸另一个例子是北方的ern stretch of land north of Kansas State University (the blue highlighted area), the Marlatt Watershed and this area is subdivided between agricultural land use and urban land use. They took water quality samples by a HACH® Test Kit and using the citizen science method and recorded data into the ArcGIS mapping system.¹⁹In Bagmati River, Nepal a positive correlation found between population density and water quality deterioration.²⁰

Deforestation and degrading activities such as river sand mining waste disposal and cultivation on river bank affected the water quality of Bagmati River.^21,22In Kashmir, water quality of Wular lake deteriorated due to different land use pattern (agriculture, urbanized and wasteland) impact on surface water.²³Various physico-chemical variables were analysed by,²⁴ERDAS IMAGINE 9.0 and ArcGIS 9.3 for creating land use and land cover maps and for various LULC categories (IRS) P6 using LISS III sensor with a spatial resolution of 23.5 m. In addition, man-made fertilizers, which are applied in agriculture and built-up areas, these transported off to fields or through groundwater by various known processes like leaching, runoff and then transferred to surface water bodies via groundwater transport.^25,26In 2009, according to Pittet al;the N fertilizers application lead to denitrification, which in turn lead to deposition in atmospheric environment of nitrogen and surface water bodies also. Another example is of Mississippi River, where estimation of 89% of nitrate-nitrogen concentration has came from agriculture activities.²⁷A relationship is frequently originate when it was examined that the changes in the different land areas for human settlements or for their requirements and the effects of these modified land areas on water quality within a watershed. Among different land uses agriculture area shattered maximum fertilizers in the lake, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO) content by growth of micro-organisms in the water body and imbalance the water chemistry.²⁸A study was conductedin Tamilnadu, Ooty town of Nilgiris district, to assess the influence of urbanization especially changing land use patterns on water quality and quantity.²⁹They checked the groundwater quality parameters and spatial maps were prepared within geographical information system (GIS) using ArcGIS software. By using landuse maps they indicated that the forest area was reducing and was replaced by industries and houses. Forest land showed negative correlation with all parameters except pH, which thereby showed that the concentration of other parameters decreased with increase in the forest area. Residential area has positive correlation with all parameters except pH, this indicated that increase in residential area will increase the concentration of the water quality parameters beyond the permissible limit．Increase in urbanization decreases infiltration. There have some reports which concluded that water table is deteriorating at the rate of 1–2 m/year in many parts of the country.³⁰

The quantity and quality of groundwater were changing due to human activity. Since the era of industrialization and rapid population growth, land use change phenomena have strongly accelerated in many regions, which directly impacting the hydrology of the catchment area also concluded in their results that the water quality has been deteriorating by urban development and mainly affects the surface water.^31,32In Jakarta, Ciliwung is the biggest river, which has found to be degraded due to land use patterns and changes. The status of water quality under different land use within the Ciliwung watershed has been analyzed on the basis of remote sensing data and water quality monitoring data in the years 2010 and 2014. Their results exhibited more considerable variations in water quality variables among the forest and urban-dominated areas. In Jakarta, Depok, Bogor and neighbouring areas the high density of population resulted in land use and land cover changes, which indirectly affected water quality in Ciliwung River.³³Landuse changes have an effect on water quality, proved by few researchers for example, by introduction of nitrogen species and other biologically active compounds.^34,35In2006, Schlesingeret al;determined high nitrate concentrations in ground water of agriculture areas which was expected to be of anthropogenic origin. Changes in landuse affected the quality of water by major modifications of residue budgets.^36,37

Few studies has found large effects of dryland agriculture on water bodies such asgrowing recharge and flushing accumulate salts to rivers.^38,39It has been found that agriculture fields have been over charged with N and P during cropping seasons which cause unproductive nutrient use and groundwater pollution and can contaminate nearby water body. They used a model known as zone monitoring model which is considered to be an appropriate monitoring scheme to analyze the risks for groundwater which comes from agriculture lands. According to zone monitoring model, different methods like suction lance, direct-push method used for groundwater sampling, soil samples which are beneath the groundwater table are used to monitor nitrate concentrations from the agriculture fields to the soil region and on to the groundwater. The water quality status of river called Dongjiang in South Eastern; Chinawas examined in relation to land use (e.g. urban, forest, and agriculture) in dry and rainy seasons.⁴⁰In 2015, Dinget al;found stronger impacts of forest and urban land use on water quality in dry season comparative to rainy season and the agriculture land use createdpathetic impacts on water quality in contrast with urbanized land area.⁴¹In Chaohu lake of China the water quality was very fine due to good ecological environment in the early period. But due to change in land use system, the downstream ecosystems and hydrological conditions have been changed as the discharge from the local manufacturing units, cultivated land, and daily life.⁴²By using statistical analysis, Huanget al;have studied stream water quality in Chaohu lake basin, China. Their statistical model showed that between the years 2000 and 2008, built up land in the basin was positively correlated with most of the water quality variables whereas, forest, grassland and water bodies were negatively correlated with most of the variables.⁴³Locally, the increasing urbanized areasimpacted quality of aquatic bodies,^44,45groundwater recharge^46,47and storm discharge.⁴⁸Hattet al;found similar results like extension of urban land has a direct relationship with the water body and it increased Total Dissolved Solids in river water.⁴⁹Muñozet al;发现在1998年和2006年之间,53%of forest land converted to pasture and cropping land in lake Rupanco basin, Chile and increased nitrogen in the lake water from 33 kg TN/km²/y to 621 kg TN/km²/y.⁵⁰Dabrowskiet al;also assessed the agricultural activity impact on water quality.⁵¹水sheds in urbanized areas had higher nitrogen yields while forested watersheds within the forest land had considerable lower yields of nitrogen and nitrogen compounds.⁵²

2011年,Chidyaet al．investigated the water quality status of Likangala River, which shown contaminationat most of the sampling sites with phosphates,E. Coli．The deprived agricultural practices such as runoff from fertilisers, cultivation on bank of river and urban pollution where different settlements were close up to the river and sewage discharged into the river water and deteriorates its quality. Water quality samples were collected in both dry and wet seasons to assess river health, as there are seasonal variations caused by rainfall and increased runoff that can affect water quality.⁵³In Southern Malawi, water quality of Likangala River that passes through a Zomba city was analysed by Pullanikkatilet al;in 2015 and found that in both dry and wet seasons the water quality has been found to be normal and sometimes bad at the sampled sites andnot suitable for human consumption without treatment.⁵⁴A study was conducted in China on Guishui river, for the estimating the recharge availability of land use in relation to hydrological process and found reduction in groundwater rechargein order of cropland, grassland, urban land and forest respectively.⁵⁵In Ziarat watershed, Yoneset al.,found water quality status in relation to four land use: urban development pasture, forest and cultivated.⁵⁶According to an U.S. Geological Survey conducted in 1999, they found an elevation in nutrient surplus in nearby water bodies within agricultural areas due to inputs of nutrients from fertilizers and manure.⁵⁷城市化地区由不同土地使用莱克阀门e office, residential, industrial and other built area when it was comparedwith other landuse, then it has been found that urban land produces more wastewater.⁵⁸The urbanized areas expanded more resistant areas, which led to flow of storm at faster rate and have better volume of runoff. Impermeable pollutants (e.g., non-point source and point source pollutants) runoff into river that increased nutrient level and other unsuitable compounds in aquatic bodies.⁵⁹According to Sunet al;in suburban areas the infrastructure also contributed to increase in nitrogen level, if there is a shortage in treatment of wastewater treatment.⁶⁰

A study was conducted in the Manyame river upstream catchment in Zimbabwe and found that during the years 1995 and 2012, grassland, bare and forest land area decreased by 22.6%, 31.7% and 24% respectively whereas, agricultural actionsand urbanization increased by 24.4% and 41.6% respectively.⁶¹This landuse change increased total phosphorus (TP) load from 130 kg/day to 376 kg/day and total nitrogen load from 290 kg/day to 494 kg/day at the outlet. In 2011, Salajeghehet al;studied water quality in Karkheh watershed in West Iran and found that between the years 1988 and 2002, urban land in the watershed increased from 19,051 hectares to 27,794 hectares which increased total dissolved solids (TDS) in water from 1,200 mg/L to 1,900 mg/L at some points.⁶²The study conducted by Khareet al;in the Alafia river watershed in Florida, USA, claimed that increasing urban area and decreasing agricultural land improved water quality.⁶³They concluded that between the years 1974 and 2007, urban and residential land in the watershed increased from 10 to 21%, whereas, agricultural land decreased from 36 to 19% and forest reduction from 13 to 8%. This land use change decreased total nitrogen (TN) in stream water at some points from 2 mg/l to 1.5 mg/l.

Effects on air quality

LULC and their associations with the atmospheric surroundingsis necessary for the sustainable management of natural property. In different South East Asian countries, LCLUC and their effects on atmospheric environment were studie.⁶⁴Different landuse provide different benefits to residents i.e., liveable society. However, some land use generated or worsened the quality of air affecting the public health.^65,66Most of the cities in South and South East Asia have many problems related to air quality, and endorsed to industrialization, urbanization and increasing demands from the energy sector.^67,68,69Increased urbanization and population explosion have caused pressure for conversion of natural and agricultural areas into urban and residential areas and having considerable impacts on ecosystem.⁷⁰Land use also impacts air quality by emitting GHG and disturbing aerosol composition.^71,72It has been studied that pollutants and aerosols from burning of biomass exceeded standard levels^73,74,75,76and transported to long distance and continue for weeks to months, affecting not only atmospheric environment but also disturbed smoke concentrations, biogeochemical cycles,⁷⁷including ozone concentrations,⁷⁸chemistry of atmospheric surroundings,⁷⁹weather and climate.^80,81Some of the workers mentioned that the unpredictable biogenic organic compounds (VOCs; e.g., isoprene, monoterpenes) and nitric oxide emitted from certain plants were major precursors for tropospheric ozone which is a influential GHG and an important air pollutant compound.⁸²Biogenic VOCs are also chief precursors of secondary organic aerosols which add particulate matter to air quality.^83,84,85

土地覆盖的变化也影响了民意调查utants deposition (such as ozone and PM) and their precursors. In the Houston, TX, landuse change effectedon surface ozone area and it was found that the land use change increased the number of incredible ozone days (i.e., days with daily maximum 8-h ozone more than 84 ppb by 2–3 days) during summer.⁸⁶The effects of anthropogenic land use change on atmospheric environment has been determined by Ganzeveldet al.and ignored the future potential of climate-driven changes in vegetation cover. They demonstrated how changes in landuseand landcover obsessed by climate change, anthropogenic land use changes and increasing atmospheric CO₂concentrations, all disturb worldwide atmospheric environment and quality of air.⁸⁷Investigations have been done by Maninset al;on the effects of six alternative forms of urban on atmospheric quality by using TOPAZ 2000 land use-transport model which is integrated with analytical air shed modelling for evaluating the impact on air quality of different urban development scenariosand found photochemical smog and particulate pollution.⁸⁸In Wuhan city (Central China), impacts of land use on atmospheric quality has been examined and explored the quantitative connections between land use and air quality based on nine ground-level monitoring sites.⁸⁹These monitoring sites have long-term spatio-temporal perception throughout the period from 2007 to 2014 and their results revealed that atmospheric environment has been significantly influenced by land use changes. Growth in one standard deviation of urbanized land caused 2% increases in NO₂whereas plants caused decreases in 5%. The increasing numbers of water bodies with standard deviation of one were related with decrease in 3%–6% of SO₂or PM₁₀level, which was equivalent to the mitigation consequence of meteorology factor like precipitation. The foremost sources of air pollution were industrial emission and vehicle exhaust, although urban land use patterns and changes also have a close relationship with urban atmospheric environment.^90,91Another cause of deterioration of air quality from land use was the increasing urban temperature because of the increasing impermeable surface in the cities.^92,93Generally, increasing temperature of urban areas resulted in higher concentration of ozone due to an increased ground-level ozone production.⁹⁴In the Las Vegas Valley, US Xian (2007) also found clear local influence of urban development density on air pollutant distribution in 2007.⁹⁵By using ground monitoring remarks and Land sat images for land use information, a moderate-to-strong connection was found between the annual average of PM_2.5and the amount of urban land near by the monitoring sites in the years 1998 and 2010 within Central Alabama, US.⁹⁶

Their main aim was to identify the interaction between PM₁₀variations and LUCC based on the simulated PM₁₀surfaces in the years 2006 and 2013 in the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan agglomeration (CZT), by using a regression modeling. The grades shown the overall mean of PM₁₀in the CZT declined from 106.74µg/m³to 94.37 µg/m³throughout the years 2006 and 2013. Generally, the variations in concentrations of PM₁₀were absolutely correlated with the increasing urbanized area, and negatively correlated with the increased forests areas. These consequence confirmed conclusion of in 2008 suggested that land use strategies such as urban growth and protecting essential ecological sites would be effective in limiting PM₁₀growth.^97,98,99In 2017Yanget al;identified thefunctional zone of urbanized areahad an suitable spatial scale to examine the land use impact on PM_2.5in urban areas since in a City ofNanchang cityin middle China they well-known the land use impact on PM_2.5pollution.¹⁰⁰They explored the landuse impact on PM_2.5pollution in urban areas by using land use regression (LUR) models and statistical analysis and did not find impact of change as the seasons changed. In 2015,at Raleigh situated in North CarolinaMansfieldet al;found urban form effects on atmospheric surroundings air pollution and public health risk．发展的三个场景:紧凑development, sprawling development and current conditions, they incorporated health risk assessment models and land use regression transportation demand to forecast atmospheric quality and health impacts. According to their views, local variation in PM_2.5increased by compactness and increases the harshness of confined air pollution hotspots and gave suggestions for improvement of air quality that there should be development in compactness from a regional point of view.¹⁰¹

Conclusions

Land-use impacts changedthe water and air chemistry which can be significant and have a variety of temporal and spatial marks both positive and negative for humansand environment. It is demonstrated that from existing literature that researchers identified the potential consequences of various landuse changes and their management but the earlier studies didnot found relationship between effect of these four landuses (agriculture, peri-urban, urban and forest) combined on water and air quality in hilly region. Therefore our main aim is to found a relationship between these four landuses and their effect onwater (surface and groundwater) and air quality.

References

1. Foley J. A., Defries R., Asner G. P. Global consequences of land use. Science．2005;309:570–574.
   CrossRef
2. Pielke R. A. Land use and climate change. Science．2013;310:1625–1626.
   CrossRef
3. 不lson E., Booth D. Sediment sources in an urbanizing, mixed land-use watershed.Journal of Hydrology.2002;264:51-68.
   CrossRef
4. Van Drecht G., Bouwman A. F., Knoop J. M., Beusen A. H. W., Meinardi C. R. Global modeling of the fate of nitrogen from point and nonpoint sources in soils, groundwater, and surface water. Global Biogeochemical Cycles．2003;17:26 –31.
   CrossRef
5. Banner E., Stahl A., Dodds W. Stream discharge and riparian land use influence in-stream concentrations and loads of phosphorus from central plains watersheds.Journal of Environmental Management.2009;44:552-565.
   CrossRef
6. Zaimes G., Schultz R., Isenhart T. Stream bank erosion adjacent to riparian forest buffers, row crop fields, and continuously grazed pastures along Bear Creek in central Iowa.Journal of Soil and Water Conservation.2004;59:19-27.
7. Guo Q. H., Ma K. M., Zhang Y. Impact of land use pattern on lake water quality in urban region.Acta Eclologica Sinica.2009;29(2):776–787.
8. Sutton M., Howard C. M., Erisman J. W., Billen G., Bleeker A., Grennfelt., Van Grinsven H. B. Grizzetti B. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2011.
9. Fenn M. E., Baron J. S., Allen E. B., Rueth H. M., Nydick K. R., Geiser L., Bowman W. D., Sickman J. O., Meixner T., Johnson D. W., Neitlich P. Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition in the western United StatesBioscience.2003;53(4):404-420.
10. Velthohf G. I.,Witzke H. P., Klimont Z., Oudendag D., Asman W., Oenema O. Integrated Assessment of Nitrogen Losses from Agriculture in eu-27 using miterra-europe.journal of environment quality.2009;38(2):402-17.
    CrossRef
11. Arnold., Chester L., Gibbon J. C. Impervious surface coverage: Emergence of a key environmental factor.Journal of the American Planning Association.1996;62(2):243-58.
    CrossRef
12. Vörösmarty C. J., Douglas E. M., Green P. A., Revenga C. Geospatial Indicators of Emerging Water Stress: an application to Africa.AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment.2005;34:230–236.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
13. Allison G. B., Cook P. G., Barnett S. R., Walker G. R., Jolly I. D., Hughes M. W. Land clearance and river salinisation in the western Murray Basin, Australia.Journal of Hydrology.1990;119:1– 19.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
14. Phillips F. M., Maria C. C. 2003. Groundwater dating and residence time measurements. Ann Arbor. 2003;1001:48109-1063.
15. Walvoord M. A., Phillips F. M. Stonestrom D. A., Evans R. D., Hartsough P. C., Newman B. D., Striegl R. G. A reservoir of nitrate beneath desert soils.Science.302(5647):1021-1024.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
16. Paul M., Meyer J. Streams in the urban landscape.Annual Review of Ecology and Systamatics.2001;32:333–365.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
17. Tong S. T. Y., Chen W. Modeling the Relationship Between Land use and surface Water Quality.Journal of Environment Managment.2002;66:377–393.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
18. Brabec E., Schulte S., Richards P. L. Impervious Surfaces and Water Quality: A Review of Current Literature and Its Implications for Watershed Planning.Journal of Planning Literature.2002;16(4): 501-517.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
19. Bowden C., Mike K., Josh A., Keelie C., Shane T. Water Quality Assessment: The Effects of Land Use and Land Cover in Urban and Agricultural Land (Kansas: Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences (NRES) Kansas State University). 2015
20. Bhatt M. P., McDowell W. H., Gardner K. H., Hartmann J. Chemistry of the heavily urbanised Bagmati River system in boundary layer over tropical urban environment in IndiaJournal of Atmospheric Chemistry.2014;62:73–86.
21. Jamu D. M., Chimphamba J. B., Brummett R. E. Land use and cover changes in the Likangala catchment of the Lake Chilwa basin, Malawi: implications for managing a tropical wetland.African Journal of Aquatic Science.2003;28:123–135.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
22. Chavula G., Mulwafu W. Hazardous water: An Assessment of Quality of Water Resources in the Likangala catchment area for Domestic Purposes.Malawi Journal of Science and Technology.2007;8:030–041.
23. Zahoor ul Hassan., Javaid Ahmad ShahTasawoor Ahmad Kanth., Ashok Kumar Pandit. Influence of land use/land cover on the water chemistry of Wular Lake in Kashmir Himalaya (India). Ecological Processes.2015;4:9.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
24. American Public Health Association, (APHA.). Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, 20^thedition. Washington, DC. 1998.
25. Pitt R., Clark S., Field R. Groundwater contamination potential from storm water infiltration practices.Journal of Urban Water.2009;1:217-236.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
26. Hayashi M., Rosenberry D. Effects of groundwater exchange on the hydrology and ecology of surface water.The Japanese Journal of Groundwater Hydrology.2001;43:327-341.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
27. Donald A. Goolsby., William A. Battaglin. U.S. Geological Survey, Lakewood, CO and Richard P. Hooper, U.S. Geological Survey, Atlanta, GA. Sources and Transport of Nitrogen in the Mississippi River Basin．Presented at the American Farm Bureau Federation Workshop"From the Corn Belt to the Gulf...Agriculture and Hypoxia in theMississippi River Watershed", St. Louis, Missouri. 1997;14-15.
28. Hassan Z. U., Javaid J. A., Kanth T. A., Pandit A. K. Influence of land use/land cover on the water chemistry of Wular Lake in Kashmir Himalaya (India). Ecological Processes．2015;4(9):1-11.
    CrossRef
29. Karthiyayini S., Sundaram V. L. K. Impact of urbanization on water resources –a case study of ooty.International journal of earth sciences and engineering.2016;9(1):163-169.
30. Sharma P., Gupta G., Prabhakar P., Tiwari S., Kathait P., Pathak Y., Mishra N., Kumar S. Land use land cover change impact on water resources: a review.International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Scientific Research.2017;4(2):07-14.
31. Dams J., Woldeamlak S. T., Batelaan O. Predicting land-use change and its impact on the groundwater system of the Kleine Nete catchment, Belgium.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences.2008;12:1369-1385.
    CrossRef
32. Henderson L., y Mahoney C., McClelland C., Myers A. The affect of land use and land cover on water quality in urban environments. Natural Resources and Environmental Science．2014;3-17.
33. Permatasari P. A., Setiawan Y., Khairiah R. N., Effendi H. The effect of land use change on water quality: a case study in Ciliwung Watershed. Earth and Environmental Science．2017;54:012-026
34. Schlesinger W. H., Reckhow K. H., Bernhardt E. S. 2006. Global change: The nitrogen cycle and rivers, Water Resource Research, 42, W03S06, doi:10.1029/2005WR004300.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
35. Schlesinger W. H. On the fate of anthropogenic nitrogen, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810193105. 2009;106(1):203– 208.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
36. 哈桑·M·A。M。教堂,徐J。,燕y 2008。Spatial and temporal variation of sediment yield in the landscape: Example of Huanghe (Yellow River). Geophysical. Research Letter, 35, L06401, doi:10.1029/2008GL033428.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
37. Valentin C. Runoff and sediment losses from 27 upland catchments in Southeast Asia: Impact of rapid land use changes and conservation practices.Agricuture. Ecosystem Environment.2008;128:225 – 238.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
38. Cook P. G., Leaney F. W., Jolly I. D., Jolly. Groundwater recharge in the Mallee region, and salinity implications for the Murray River - A review, Tech. Rep. 45/01, 133 pp., CSIRO Land and Water, Glen Osmond, South Aust., Australia. 2001.
39. Scanlon B. R., Reedy R. C., D. Stonestrom A., Prudic D. E., K. F. Dennehy. Impact of land use and land cover change on groundwater recharge and quality in the Southwestern US,Global Change Biology.2005;11:1577– 1593.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
40. Eulensteina F., Tauschkea M., Schindler U., Müllera L., Lanaa M. A., Schindler R., Mayer W. H., Drechslere H., Cremer N. Agricultural Land Use Systems and Groundwater Quality: Impact Assessment Using Nutrient Balancesfor Evaluation, Monitoring and Conservation of Natural Resources Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia．2016;11:49 – 58.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
41. Ding J., Jiang Y., Fu L., Liu Q., Peng Q., Kang M. Impacts of Land Use on Surface Water Quality in a Subtropical River Basin: a case study of the Dongjiang River Basin, Southeastern China.水．2015;7(8):4427-4445.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
42. Shang G., Shang J. Causes and control countermeasures of eutrophication in Chaohu Lake, China.Chinese Geographical Science.2005;15(4):348–354.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
43. Huang J, Zhan J, Yan H, Wu F, and Deng X Z. Evaluation of the Impacts of Land Use on Water Quality: A Case Study in The Chaohu Lake Basin.The Scientific World JournalVolume 2013, Article ID 329187, 7pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/329187
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
44. Randhir T. Watershed-scale effects of urbanization on sediment export: Assessment and policy.水Resources Research.2003;39(6):1169.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
45. Sickman J. O., Zanoli M. J., Mann H. L. 2007. Effects of urbanization on organic carbon loads in the Sacramento River, California.水Resource. Research43, W11422, doi:10.1029/2007WR005954.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
46. Ku H., Simmons D. L. Effect of urban storm water runoff on ground water beneath recharge basins on Long Island, U.S. Geological Survey. Water Resource Invest．1985;85-88.
47. Filippone C., Leake S. A. Time scales in the sustainable management of water resources. Southwest Hydrology．2005;4(26):16–17.
48. Hollis G. E. The effect of urbanization on floods of different recurrence interval.水Resource Research．1975;11:431 – 435.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
49. Hatt B., Fletcher T., Walsh C., Taylor S. The Influence of Urban Density and Drainage Infrastructure on the Concentrations and Loads of Pollutants in Small Streams. Environmental Management . 2004;34(1):112-124.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
50. Muñoz J., Echeverría C., Marcé R., Riss W., Sherman B., Iriarte J. The combined impact of land use change and aquaculture on sediment and water quality in oligotrophic Lake Rupanco.Journal of Environmental Management.2013;128:283-291.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
51. Dabrowskiand J. M., Klerk de L. P. An assessment of the impact of different land use activities on water quality in the upper Olifants River catchment.Natural Resources and the Environment.2013;39(2):231- 244.
52. Ortiz-Zayas J. R., Cuevas E., Mayol-Bracero O. L., Donoso L., Trebs I., Figueroa-Nieves D., McDowell W. H. Urban influences on the nitrogen cycle in Puerto Rico. Biogeochemistry 79:109–133
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
53. Chidya R C G, Sajidu S M I, Mwatseteza J F, Masamba W R L. 2011. Evaluation and assessment of water quality in Likangala River and its catchment area. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth．2006;36:865–887.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
54. Pullanikkatil D., Palamuleni L. G., Ruhiiga T. M . 2015. Impact of land use on water quality in the Likangala catchment, southern Malawi.African Journal of Aquatic Science1727 9364http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/taas20
55. Yun P., Huili G., Zhou demin Z., li xiaojuan., nakagoshi nobukazu. Impact of Land Use Change on Groundwater Recharge in Guishui River Basin, China.Journal of Geographical Sciences.2011;21(6) :734–743.
56. Yones K., Kiani F., Ebrahmi. The effect of land use change on soil and water quality in northern Iran．Journal of Mountain Science.2012;9(6):798–816.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
57. U.S. Geological Survey. The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters—Nutrients and Pesticides: U.S. Geological Survey Circular. 1999;1225:82.
58. 水s E. R., Morse J. L., Bettez N. D., Groffman P. M. Differential carbon and nitrogen controls of denitrification in riparian zones and streams along an urban to exurban gradient.Journal of Environment Quality.2014;43:955–963.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
59. White M. D., Greer K. A. The effects of watershed urbanization on the stream hydrology and riparian vegetation of Los Peñasquitos Creek, California.Landscape and Urban Planing.2006;74:125–138.
    ​​​​​​​CrossRef
60. Sun R., Chen L., Chen W., Ji Y. Effect of land-use patterns on total nitrogen concentration in the Upstream Regions of the Haihe River Basin, China.Environment Managment. 2013;51:45–587.
    CrossRef
61. Kibena J, Nhapi I and Gumindoga W. 2013. Assessing the relationship between water quality parameters and changes in land use patterns in the Upper Manyame River, Zimbabwe. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth.2013;67:153-163.
62. Salajegheh A., Razavizadeh S., Khorasani N., Hamidifar M., Salajegheh S. Land use Changes and its Effects on Water Quality(Case study: Karkheh watershed).Journal of Environmental Studies．2011;37(58):22- 24.
63. Khare Y., Martinez C.,Toor G. Water quality and land use changes in the Alafia and Hillsborough river watersheds, Florida, USA.Journal of the American Water Resources Association.48(6):1276-1293.
    CrossRef
64. Vadrevu K., Toshimasa Ohara., Justice C. 2017. Land cover, land use changes and air pollution in Asia: a synthesis.Environ. Res. Lett.12 120201
    CrossRef
65. Bandeira J. M., Coelho M. C., Sá M E., Tavares R., Borrego C. Impact of land use on urban mobility patterns, emissions and air quality in a Portuguese medium-sized city.Science of the Total Environment.2011;409:1154–1163.
    CrossRef
66. Frank L. D., Sallis J. F., Conway T. L., Chapman J. E., Saelens B. E., Bachman W. Many pathways from landuse to health—Associations between neighborhood walkability and active transportation, body mass index, and air quality.Journal of theAmerican Planning Association.2006;72:75–87.
    CrossRef
67. FoellWet al1995 Energy use, emissions, and air pollution reduction strategies in Asia水Air Soil Pollution85 2277 - 82
68. Ohara T., Murano K. Numerical simulation of the springtime trans-boundary air pollution in East Asia.水, Air and Soil Pollution.2001;130:295–300.
    CrossRef
69. Gurjar B. R., Ravindra K., Nagpure A. S. Air pollution trends over Indian megacities and their local-to-global implications.Atmospheric Environment.2016;142:475–95.
    CrossRef
70. Justice C. O., Gutman G., Vadrevu K. P. NASA land cover and land use change: an interdisciplinary research program.Journal of Environmental Management.2015;148:4–9.
    CrossRef
71. Fargione Jet alLand clearing and the biofuel carbon debt Science．2008;319:1235–8.
    CrossRef
72. Popp Aet alLand-use futures in the shared socio-economic pathwaysGlob. Environ. Change.2017;42:331–45
    CrossRef
73. Badarinath K. V. S., Kharol S., Vadrevu K. Variations in CO, O3 and black carbon aerosol mass concentrations associated with planetary.Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry.2009;62(1):73-86．
    CrossRef
74. Ikeda K., Tanimoto H. 2015 Exceedances of air quality standard level of PM2．5 in Japan caused by Siberian wildfiresEnvironment Research Letter10 105001
75. Sugimoto N., Shimizu A., Nishizawa T., Matsui I., Jin Y., Khatri P., Irie H., Takamura T., Kazuma Aoki K., Thana B. 2015. Aerosol characteristics in Phimai, Thailand determined by continuous observation with a polarization sensitive Mie–Raman lidar and a sky radiometer.Environmental Research Letter10 065003
    CrossRef
76. Vadrevu K. P.et al2015 Vegetation fires, absorbing aerosols and smoke plume characteristics in diverse biomass burning regions of Asia .Environmental Research Letter.10 105003
    CrossRef
77. Marlier M. E.et al2015 Fire emissions and regional air quality impacts from fires in oil palm, timber and logging concessions in IndonesiaEnviron. Res. Lett.10 085005
78. Sonkaew T., Macatangay R. Determining relationships and mechanisms between tropospheric ozone column concentrations and tropical biomass burning in Thailand and its surrounding regionsEnvironmental Research Letters.2015;10(6):5-9.
    CrossRef
79. Vadrevu K. P., Giglio L., Justice C. Satellite based analysis of fire–carbon monoxide relationships from forest and agricultural residue burning 2003–2011Atmospheric Environment.2013;64:179–91.
    CrossRef
80. Seinfeld J. H.et alACE-ASIA: regional climatic and atmospheric chemical effects of Asian dust and pollutionBull.Am. Meteorol. Soc.2004;85:367–80.
    CrossRef
81. Cristofanelli P.et al.2014 Transport of short-lived climate forcers/pollutants (SLCF/P) to the Himalayas during the South Asian summer monsoon onsetEnvironmental Research Letter9 084005
    CrossRef
82. Henze D. K., Seinfeld J. H., Ng N. L., Kroll J. H., Fu T.-M., Jacob D. J., Heald C. L. Global modeling of secondary organic aerosol formation from aromatic hydrocarbons: highvs. low-yield pathways.Atmospheric Science Chemistry and Physics.2008;8:2405–2420.
    CrossRef
83. Liao H., Henze D. K., Seinfeld J. H., Wu S., Mickley L. J. 2007. Biogenic secondary organic aerosol over the United States: Comparison of climatological simulations with observations, J.Geophys. Res., 112, D06201, doi:10.1029/2006JD007813, 2007.
    CrossRef
84. Racherla P. N., Adams P. J. Sensitivity of global tropospheric ozone and fine particulate matter concentrationsremote sensing information and ground observations.International JournalofRemote Sensing.2007;28:5427–5445.
85. Jiang X., Wiedinmyer C., Chen F., Yang Z. L., Lo J. C. F. 2008. Predicted impacts of climate and land use change on surface ozone in the Houston, Texas.Journal of Geophysical Research113, D20312, doi:10.1029/2008JD009820, 2008.
    CrossRef
86. Ganzeveld L., Bouwman L., Stehfest E., VanVuuren D. P., Eickhout B., Lelieveld J. 2010. Impact of future land use and land cover changes on atmospheric chemistry-climate interactions.Journal of Geophysical Research115, D23301, doi: 10.1029/2010JD014041.
    CrossRef
87. Manins M. E., Cope P. J., Hurley P. W., Newton N. C., Smith L.O., Marquez L. O. The impact of urban development on air quality and energy use p.c.Atmospheric Research.1998;1-6.
88. XuG., JiaoL.,ZhaoS., Man Yuan.,LiX.,DongT．Examining the Impacts of Land Use on Air Quality from a Spatio-Temporal Perspective in Wuhan, China．Atmosphere. 2016;7(5):62-69.
    CrossRef
89. Romero H., Ihl M., Rivera A., Zalazar P., Azocar P. Rapid urban growth, land-use changes and air pollution in Santiago, Chile.Atmospheric Environment.1999;33:4039–4047.
    CrossRef
90. Fameli K., Assimakopoulos V., Kotroni V., Retalis A. Effect of the land use change characteristics on the air pollution patterns above the greater Athens area (GAA) after 2004.Global NestJournal．2013;15:169–177.
    CrossRef
91. Wilby R. L. Constructing climate change scenarios of urban heat island intensity and air quality.Environment and Planning B Planning and Design．2008;35:902–919.
    CrossRef
92. Sarrat C., Lemonsu A., Masson V., Guedalia D. Impact of urban heat island on regional atmospheric pollution.Atmospheric Environment.2006;40:1743–1758.
    CrossRef
93. Civerolo K., Hogrefe C., Lynn B., Rosenthal J., Ku J., Solecki W., Cox J., Small C., Rosenzweig C., Goldberg R. Estimating the effects of increased urbanization on surface meteorology and ozone concentrations in the New York City metropolitan region.Atmospheric Environment.2007;41:1803–1818.
    CrossRef
94. Xian G. Analysis of impacts of urban land use and land cover on air quality in the Las Vegas region using remote sensing information and ground observations.International Journal of Remote Sensing.2007;28:5427–5445.
    CrossRef
95. Superczynski S. D., Christopher S. A. Exploring Land Use and Land Cover Effects on Air Quality in Central Alabama Using GIS and Remote Sensing. Remote Sensing．2011;2552–2567.
    CrossRef
96. Weng Q., Yang S. Urban air pollution patterns, land use, and thermal landscape: An examination of the linkage using GIS.Environment Monitering Assessment.2006;117:463–489.
    CrossRef
97. Stone B. Urban sprawl and air quality in large US cities.Journal of Environmental Management.2008;86:688–698.
    CrossRef
98. Ridder D. K., Lefebre F., Adriaensen S., Arnold U., Beckroege W., Bronner C., Damsgaard O., Dostal I., Dufek J., Hirsch J. Simulating the impact of urban sprawl on air quality and population exposure in the German Ruhr area. Part II: Development and evaluation of an urban growth scenario.Atmospheric Environment.2008;42:7070–7077.
    CrossRef
99. Yang H,ChenWand Liang Z. Impact of Land Use on PM_2.5Pollution in a Representative City of Middle China.Journal of Environment Research and Public Health.2017;14(5):462.
    CrossRef
100. Mansfield T. J., Rodriguez D. A., Huegy J., Gibson J. M. The Effects of Urban Form on Ambient Air Pollution and Public Health Risk: a case study in Raleigh, North Carolina.Risk Anal.2015;35(5): 901-18.
     CrossRef