印度阿萨姆邦巴拉克山谷森林村庄的人与野生动物冲突
h·杜塔1, H.辛格1B. K.杜塔1, P. Deb1A.达斯2
1地理空间技术与应用项目,Aaranyak, 50 Samanway Path, Survey Beltola Guwahati, 781028 Assam India
DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.10.1.29
摘要
人类和动物经常因栖息地和食物需求而发生冲突,这主要是由于人口的增加和自然栖息地的丧失。这一问题已被确定为许多国家政府面临的主要挑战,对许多人类社区都具有重要意义。森林村庄是这个问题的最有力的场所,因为这些地方是人类的需求与野生动物的需求相交的地方。巴拉克山谷有104个森林村庄,由三个区组成;即:位于印度阿萨姆邦南部的查哈尔、海拉坎迪和卡里姆甘杰。然而,还没有对这些村庄的人与野生动物冲突进行适当的研究。因此,本研究试图确定参与该地区森林村庄冲突的各种野生动物。研究表明,有四种冲突动物;即:豺狼、果子狸、野猪和猴子,它们是这些村庄最常见的问题。
关键字
Man-animal冲突;森林村庄;巴拉克谷;阿萨姆邦
复制下面引用这篇文章:
Dutta H, Singha H, Dutta B. K, Deb P, Das P.印度阿萨姆邦巴拉克山谷森林村庄的人类与野生动物冲突。当代世界环境2015;10(1)DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.10.1.29
复制以下内容引用此URL:
Dutta H, Singha H, Dutta B. K, Deb P, Das P.印度阿萨姆邦巴拉克山谷森林村庄的人类与野生动物冲突。生态学报,2015;10(1)。可以从://www.a-i-l-s-a.com/?p=9106
文章发表历史
收到: | 2015-03-31 |
---|---|
接受: | 2015-04-16 |
介绍
生物多样性或与野生动物有关的冲突是指野生动物与人类争夺共同资源的冲突(Conover, 2002;Graham et al., 2005)。根据Woodroffe et al.(2005),人与野生动物冲突是指人类与野生动物之间发生冲突的现象,其形式包括劫掠庄稼、掠夺牲畜、捕食受管理的野生动物物种或杀害人类。这是一个严重的问题,需要以最高优先级紧急解决(印度环境和森林部,2011)。居住在森林附近以及森林碎片中的人们更容易发生冲突,因为野生动物寻求满足其营养、生态和行为需求(Sukumar, 1990)。换句话说,居住在森林里或森林周围的人很容易成为与野生动物冲突的受害者,因为他们的需求往往与野生动物的需求重叠。事实上,冲突可能特别严重,因为农村人口生活在与保护区密切相关的地方(Mishra, 2001)。因此,森林村庄是人与动物冲突最激烈的场所。当涉及到濒危物种和人类福利受到威胁时,人类与野生动物的冲突引起了人们的严重关注(Saberwal et al., 1994)。然而,除了有魅力的动物外,一些常见的动物也会造成严重的后果和损失。 There are 104 forest villages in the Barak Valley, Assam, which could be prone to human-wildlife conflict; however no study has been done on this issue in this region. This paper documents conflict between human and four species of wild animal, which are not endangered but have been influential in depredation in the forest villages of this Valley.
材料与方法
巴拉克山谷位于24080/N和25080/北纬和92度015/E和93015/位于阿萨姆邦南部,包括Cachar, Karimganj和Hailakandi地区(图1)。该山谷总面积为6962公里2占阿萨姆邦地理面积的9%。该地区由巴拉克河及其支流排干,北部是阿萨姆邦的北卡查尔山区和梅加拉亚邦的贾因蒂亚山区,南部是米佐拉姆邦,东部是曼尼普尔邦,西部是特里普拉邦和孟加拉国的锡尔赫特地区。山谷的边界是北部的Barail山,东部的Bhuban山和南部的Mizoram山。土地用途包括农业活动、渔业、人类住区和牧场。海拔高度的变化和不同的气候条件赋予了该地区1B/C3 Cachar热带常绿林和2B/C2 Cachar热带半常绿林(Champion and Seth, 1968)。巴拉克谷地区气候属亚热带气候,温暖湿润(Das and Joshi, 2012)。
每个地区都有自己的森林部门,在该部门下有森林范围,负责森林管理。Karimganj省有六个森林山脉,而Cachar和Hailakandi各有五个森林山脉。Barak山谷有12个保护区和一个野生动物保护区,其中只有8个,即下Jiri,上Jiri, Barak, Innerline, Sonai, Katakhal, Longai, Singla和Patheria山保护区在其通报区域内有森林村庄(来源:环境与森林部,Cachar, Karimganj和Hailakandi分部,南阿萨姆邦)。这些保护区共有104个森林村庄。Karimganj省有最多的森林村庄(44个),其次是Cachar省(40个)和Hailakandi省(20个)。卡里姆甘杰省下的森林村庄位于三个山脉之下;即:Cheragi (16), Lowairpoa(27)和Patharkandi(1)。Cachar省下的森林村庄位于四个范围内;即:Hawaithang (22), monerkhal (6), Jirighat(8)和Sadar(4),以及Hailakandi分部下的森林村庄位于三个范围内;即:Matijuri (13), Gharmurah(4)和Kukicherra(3)。Longai保护区森林(位于Lowairpoa山脉下)拥有最多的森林村庄(27),而Patheria丘陵保护区森林(位于Patherkandi山脉下)拥有最少的森林村庄(1)。巴拉谷的主要动物有印度象、豪猪、豹子、懒猴、猕猴、松鼠、叶猴、懒熊、亚洲黑熊、果子狸、印度灰獴、野猪、山羊等(乔杜里,2013)。 The survey was conducted between October, 2013 and February, 2014.The list of forest villages was collected from Department of Environment & Forests, Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi Division. Out of the 104 forest villages of the Valley, 52 (i.e. 50%) were taken into consideration for detailed study. We used closed-ended questionnaire survey (Fanning, 2005; Anon, 2012). However, questions were open-ended regarding the wild animal species. From each Forest Division, 50% forest villages were surveyed, and thus, 22, 20 and 10 forest villages from Karimganj, Cachar and Hailakandi Division, respectively were surveyed (Figure 1). The forest villages to be surveyed in a particular Division were selected through the generation of random numbers from a scientific calculator in which the total number of forest villages present in that particular Division had been placed as the upper limit. The generated random numbers were matched with the serial number of the forest village listed in each Division of Forest, and were selected for the survey. Among the 52 forest villages, the average number of households per village was about 120. We surveyed 10 houses randomly per village. The selection of households in a particular village was again done with the help of random numbers generated through a scientific calculator in which the total number of households in that particular village had been taken as the upper limit. The first ten random numbers generated were considered and the households corresponding to those generated numbers in a particular village were visited and the residents were questioned about conflict animals causing problem. Thus the data obtained from 520 households, animals causing depredation were identified and listed. Only the prominent species, which could be identified by a villager was listed up to species level, otherwise, the animal was identified till the genus level; e.g., there are four species of civets in the Barak Valley (Choudhury, 1997); whenever we came across, we refereed only civet. We listed the occurrence of conflict of the animal species separately and in different combinations (see Tables 1-5). For statistical analysis, chi-square test was performed.
结果
林村居民主要遭受与金豺狼(犬属金)、果子狸(Viverricula籼,《哈密顿佯谬》,《幼蛇》,《紫蛇》、恒河猴(猕猴属mulata)和野猪(Sus scorfa)(表1-5)。Cachar地区所访问的森林村庄分别位于Hawaithang山脉(12)、monerkhal山脉(4)、Jirighat山脉(3)和Sadar山脉(1)下。然而,所有四种冲突动物均仅在前两个山脉中发现,而Sadar山脉仅发现了猴子的掠夺行为,除猴子外,Jirighat山脉均记录了三种动物的掠夺行为(表1)。森林村庄位于Matijuri山脉(8)和Gharmurah山脉(2)下。这两个山脉都有所有四种冲突动物(表2)。在Karimganj地区,村庄位于Cheragi山脉(8)和Lowairpoa山脉(14)下。这个区完全没有野猪(表3)。
野生动物的掠夺是巴拉克山谷森林村庄的普遍现象,我们研究的只有两个村庄(即Borthal和Noorka)没有任何此类问题。豺狼和果子狸的联合捕食是最常见的现象,据记录有26个村庄有这些捕食者(表4)。事实上,这两种冲突动物同时发生的发生率明显高于任何其他冲突动物同时发生的发生率(χ 2)2= 40.96, df = 4, P < 0.01)。其次是豺狼、果子狸和猴子的联合捕食,以及分别在7个村庄记录到的豺狼、果子狸、猴子和野猪的联合捕食。拥有所有四种冲突动物的村庄是Dholai山脉下的Kulicherra, Jamalpur, Bagewala和Tulartol, monerkhal山脉下的Chekercham, Gharmurah山脉下的Gharmurah和Matijuri山脉下的Dhalcherra。Khulicherra、Jamalpur、Tulartol、Gharmurah和Dhalcherra位于Innerline保护区森林内,而Chekercham和Smithnagar II分别位于Barak和Sonai保护区森林内(表4)。
人与豺狼、果子狸和猴子的冲突发生在所有三个省,而与野猪的冲突仅发生在恰尔省和卡里姆甘吉省(表5)。恰尔省(18个村庄)以豺狼捕食为主,而卡里姆甘吉省(21个村庄)以果子狸捕食为主。胡狼和果子狸共同造成了海拉肯迪最多的村庄的掠夺(每个村庄有9个)。另一方面,从整体上看,与47个村庄的居民发生冲突的豺狼是最常见的冲突动物,其次是出没于46个村庄的果子狸。事实上,与猴子和野猪相比,豺狼和果子狸的个体发生率明显更高2= 33.74, df = 3, P < 0.01))。
讨论
根据Datta-Roy等人(2009)的研究,野生动物与人类发生冲突的情况有四种:(i)对人类生命的直接威胁;(ii)野生动物对财产的破坏;(iii)家畜与野生食草动物对饲料的直接竞争;(iv)野生动物对农作物的破坏。其中,第三次和第四次经常发生在巴拉克山谷的森林村庄。巴拉克山谷森林村庄的居民遭受着与豺狼、果子狸、猴子和野猪等动物的冲突,其中前两种最常见,并参与了牲畜掠夺。捕食家畜可能会阻碍人类与大型食肉动物的共存(Espuno et al., 2004;Ogada et al., 2003)。然而,在大多数情况下,豺狼和果子狸的联合掠夺是普遍的。除了有关牲畜的报告外,海拉坎迪省Matijuri山脉下的Belaipur森林村还记录了一起人类被豺狼袭击的案件。恒河猴(解剖)袭击庄稼和蔬菜,还参与家庭内部的威胁。事实上,恒河猴袭击农作物是一个严重的问题(Miah et al., 2001)。另一方面,野猪破坏稻田。在印度各地的保护区、管理森林和人类住区周围,人类与野猪的冲突不断增加(Chauhan et al., 2009)。所有这些动物全年都从野外出现,而野猪只在冬季的几个月里参与冲突,当它们出来袭击成熟的庄稼田时。在森林村庄里,通常有多种冲突动物的联合掠夺。换句话说,一个特定的村庄受到不止一种野生动物的干扰。然而,七个村庄脱颖而出,因为他们目睹了与所有四种冲突动物的冲突,而只有两个村庄没有目睹与任何野生动物的任何形式的冲突。Noorka村只有比什努里亚曼尼普尔社区居住,没有食肉动物的掠夺空间,因为居民只饲养牛和水牛,这些牛和水牛不会被胡狼和果子狸捕食。这个村子里没有猴子和野猪。 On the other hand, all the conflict animals are absent from Borthal. However, in addition to these regular wild animals, forest villagers also face economic losses due to squirrels and hares which feed upon home garden plants and destroy home gardens; mongooses which not only kill livestock but also damage paddy fields by burrowing; jungle fowls peck sown paddy seeds. Leopards have also made their presence felt in two villages (Bagewala and Zurkhal) during the last decade but their occurrence was rare as compared to the other conflict animals. In addition to these, phayer’s leaf monkey gives rise to moderate conflict situations in a village named Ramprasadpur situated in the Innerline reserve forest under Hawaithang Range. Hence, it is concluded that frugivores, herbivores and carnivores are involved in conflicts with the residents of the forest villages of Barak Valley. This problem is likely to complicate conservation and management efforts and hence this problem must be properly addressed in the region. Although the conflict animals involved are not endangered, the intensity of their depredations at times surpass the economic threshold of the victims and this has a negative impact upon public perception on these animals.
确认
我们感谢阿萨姆邦巴拉克山谷三个地区的森林部门为研究提供了必要的许可,并在实地工作中提供了必要的协助。被调查的森林村庄的当地居民的合作也得到了高度肯定。我们还要感谢阿萨姆大学生态与环境科学系系主任Jayashree Rout教授的支持。
参考文献
生物多样性或与野生动物有关的冲突是指野生动物与人类争夺共同资源的冲突(Conover, 2002;Graham et al., 2005)。根据Woodroffe et al.(2005),人与野生动物冲突是指人类与野生动物之间发生冲突的现象,其形式包括劫掠庄稼、掠夺牲畜、捕食受管理的野生动物物种或杀害人类。这是一个严重的问题,需要以最高优先级紧急解决(印度环境和森林部,2011)。居住在森林附近以及森林碎片中的人们更容易发生冲突,因为野生动物寻求满足其营养、生态和行为需求(Sukumar, 1990)。换句话说,居住在森林里或森林周围的人很容易成为与野生动物冲突的受害者,因为他们的需求往往与野生动物的需求重叠。事实上,冲突可能特别严重,因为农村人口生活在与保护区密切相关的地方(Mishra, 2001)。因此,森林村庄是人与动物冲突最激烈的场所。当涉及到濒危物种和人类福利受到威胁时,人类与野生动物的冲突引起了人们的严重关注(Saberwal et al., 1994)。然而,除了有魅力的动物外,一些常见的动物也会造成严重的后果和损失。 There are 104 forest villages in the Barak Valley, Assam, which could be prone to human-wildlife conflict; however no study has been done on this issue in this region. This paper documents conflict between human and four species of wild animal, which are not endangered but have been influential in depredation in the forest villages of this Valley.
材料与方法
巴拉克山谷位于24080/N和25080/北纬和92度015/E和93015/位于阿萨姆邦南部,包括Cachar, Karimganj和Hailakandi地区(图1)。该山谷总面积为6962公里2占阿萨姆邦地理面积的9%。该地区由巴拉克河及其支流排干,北部是阿萨姆邦的北卡查尔山区和梅加拉亚邦的贾因蒂亚山区,南部是米佐拉姆邦,东部是曼尼普尔邦,西部是特里普拉邦和孟加拉国的锡尔赫特地区。山谷的边界是北部的Barail山,东部的Bhuban山和南部的Mizoram山。土地用途包括农业活动、渔业、人类住区和牧场。海拔高度的变化和不同的气候条件赋予了该地区1B/C3 Cachar热带常绿林和2B/C2 Cachar热带半常绿林(Champion and Seth, 1968)。巴拉克谷地区气候属亚热带气候,温暖湿润(Das and Joshi, 2012)。
图1:调查的森林村庄 巴拉克山谷的三个区,阿萨姆邦。 点击此处查看图 |
每个地区都有自己的森林部门,在该部门下有森林范围,负责森林管理。Karimganj省有六个森林山脉,而Cachar和Hailakandi各有五个森林山脉。Barak山谷有12个保护区和一个野生动物保护区,其中只有8个,即下Jiri,上Jiri, Barak, Innerline, Sonai, Katakhal, Longai, Singla和Patheria山保护区在其通报区域内有森林村庄(来源:环境与森林部,Cachar, Karimganj和Hailakandi分部,南阿萨姆邦)。这些保护区共有104个森林村庄。Karimganj省有最多的森林村庄(44个),其次是Cachar省(40个)和Hailakandi省(20个)。卡里姆甘杰省下的森林村庄位于三个山脉之下;即:Cheragi (16), Lowairpoa(27)和Patharkandi(1)。Cachar省下的森林村庄位于四个范围内;即:Hawaithang (22), monerkhal (6), Jirighat(8)和Sadar(4),以及Hailakandi分部下的森林村庄位于三个范围内;即:Matijuri (13), Gharmurah(4)和Kukicherra(3)。Longai保护区森林(位于Lowairpoa山脉下)拥有最多的森林村庄(27),而Patheria丘陵保护区森林(位于Patherkandi山脉下)拥有最少的森林村庄(1)。巴拉谷的主要动物有印度象、豪猪、豹子、懒猴、猕猴、松鼠、叶猴、懒熊、亚洲黑熊、果子狸、印度灰獴、野猪、山羊等(乔杜里,2013)。 The survey was conducted between October, 2013 and February, 2014.The list of forest villages was collected from Department of Environment & Forests, Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi Division. Out of the 104 forest villages of the Valley, 52 (i.e. 50%) were taken into consideration for detailed study. We used closed-ended questionnaire survey (Fanning, 2005; Anon, 2012). However, questions were open-ended regarding the wild animal species. From each Forest Division, 50% forest villages were surveyed, and thus, 22, 20 and 10 forest villages from Karimganj, Cachar and Hailakandi Division, respectively were surveyed (Figure 1). The forest villages to be surveyed in a particular Division were selected through the generation of random numbers from a scientific calculator in which the total number of forest villages present in that particular Division had been placed as the upper limit. The generated random numbers were matched with the serial number of the forest village listed in each Division of Forest, and were selected for the survey. Among the 52 forest villages, the average number of households per village was about 120. We surveyed 10 houses randomly per village. The selection of households in a particular village was again done with the help of random numbers generated through a scientific calculator in which the total number of households in that particular village had been taken as the upper limit. The first ten random numbers generated were considered and the households corresponding to those generated numbers in a particular village were visited and the residents were questioned about conflict animals causing problem. Thus the data obtained from 520 households, animals causing depredation were identified and listed. Only the prominent species, which could be identified by a villager was listed up to species level, otherwise, the animal was identified till the genus level; e.g., there are four species of civets in the Barak Valley (Choudhury, 1997); whenever we came across, we refereed only civet. We listed the occurrence of conflict of the animal species separately and in different combinations (see Tables 1-5). For statistical analysis, chi-square test was performed.
结果
林村居民主要遭受与金豺狼(犬属金)、果子狸(Viverricula籼,《哈密顿佯谬》,《幼蛇》,《紫蛇》、恒河猴(猕猴属mulata)和野猪(Sus scorfa)(表1-5)。Cachar地区所访问的森林村庄分别位于Hawaithang山脉(12)、monerkhal山脉(4)、Jirighat山脉(3)和Sadar山脉(1)下。然而,所有四种冲突动物均仅在前两个山脉中发现,而Sadar山脉仅发现了猴子的掠夺行为,除猴子外,Jirighat山脉均记录了三种动物的掠夺行为(表1)。森林村庄位于Matijuri山脉(8)和Gharmurah山脉(2)下。这两个山脉都有所有四种冲突动物(表2)。在Karimganj地区,村庄位于Cheragi山脉(8)和Lowairpoa山脉(14)下。这个区完全没有野猪(表3)。
表1:冲突动物的存在 在卡查尔省调查的森林村庄 (共调查20个林村) 点击这里查看表格 |
表2:冲突动物的存在 海拉坎迪分部的森林村庄 (共调查10个林村) 点击这里查看表格 |
表3:冲突动物的存在 在Karimganj省调查的森林村庄 (共调查22个林村) 点击这里查看表格 |
野生动物的掠夺是巴拉克山谷森林村庄的普遍现象,我们研究的只有两个村庄(即Borthal和Noorka)没有任何此类问题。豺狼和果子狸的联合捕食是最常见的现象,据记录有26个村庄有这些捕食者(表4)。事实上,这两种冲突动物同时发生的发生率明显高于任何其他冲突动物同时发生的发生率(χ 2)2= 40.96, df = 4, P < 0.01)。其次是豺狼、果子狸和猴子的联合捕食,以及分别在7个村庄记录到的豺狼、果子狸、猴子和野猪的联合捕食。拥有所有四种冲突动物的村庄是Dholai山脉下的Kulicherra, Jamalpur, Bagewala和Tulartol, monerkhal山脉下的Chekercham, Gharmurah山脉下的Gharmurah和Matijuri山脉下的Dhalcherra。Khulicherra、Jamalpur、Tulartol、Gharmurah和Dhalcherra位于Innerline保护区森林内,而Chekercham和Smithnagar II分别位于Barak和Sonai保护区森林内(表4)。
表4:林村数量 冲突动物在不同的组合 发生在巴拉克的森林部门 2013-2014年期间,阿萨姆邦山谷 点击这里查看表格 |
人与豺狼、果子狸和猴子的冲突发生在所有三个省,而与野猪的冲突仅发生在恰尔省和卡里姆甘吉省(表5)。恰尔省(18个村庄)以豺狼捕食为主,而卡里姆甘吉省(21个村庄)以果子狸捕食为主。胡狼和果子狸共同造成了海拉肯迪最多的村庄的掠夺(每个村庄有9个)。另一方面,从整体上看,与47个村庄的居民发生冲突的豺狼是最常见的冲突动物,其次是出没于46个村庄的果子狸。事实上,与猴子和野猪相比,豺狼和果子狸的个体发生率明显更高2= 33.74, df = 3, P < 0.01))。
表5:四种冲突动物的发生情况 三林区52个林村 2013-2014年期间,在阿萨姆邦巴拉克山谷。 点击这里查看表格 |
讨论
根据Datta-Roy等人(2009)的研究,野生动物与人类发生冲突的情况有四种:(i)对人类生命的直接威胁;(ii)野生动物对财产的破坏;(iii)家畜与野生食草动物对饲料的直接竞争;(iv)野生动物对农作物的破坏。其中,第三次和第四次经常发生在巴拉克山谷的森林村庄。巴拉克山谷森林村庄的居民遭受着与豺狼、果子狸、猴子和野猪等动物的冲突,其中前两种最常见,并参与了牲畜掠夺。捕食家畜可能会阻碍人类与大型食肉动物的共存(Espuno et al., 2004;Ogada et al., 2003)。然而,在大多数情况下,豺狼和果子狸的联合掠夺是普遍的。除了有关牲畜的报告外,海拉坎迪省Matijuri山脉下的Belaipur森林村还记录了一起人类被豺狼袭击的案件。恒河猴(解剖)袭击庄稼和蔬菜,还参与家庭内部的威胁。事实上,恒河猴袭击农作物是一个严重的问题(Miah et al., 2001)。另一方面,野猪破坏稻田。在印度各地的保护区、管理森林和人类住区周围,人类与野猪的冲突不断增加(Chauhan et al., 2009)。所有这些动物全年都从野外出现,而野猪只在冬季的几个月里参与冲突,当它们出来袭击成熟的庄稼田时。在森林村庄里,通常有多种冲突动物的联合掠夺。换句话说,一个特定的村庄受到不止一种野生动物的干扰。然而,七个村庄脱颖而出,因为他们目睹了与所有四种冲突动物的冲突,而只有两个村庄没有目睹与任何野生动物的任何形式的冲突。Noorka村只有比什努里亚曼尼普尔社区居住,没有食肉动物的掠夺空间,因为居民只饲养牛和水牛,这些牛和水牛不会被胡狼和果子狸捕食。这个村子里没有猴子和野猪。 On the other hand, all the conflict animals are absent from Borthal. However, in addition to these regular wild animals, forest villagers also face economic losses due to squirrels and hares which feed upon home garden plants and destroy home gardens; mongooses which not only kill livestock but also damage paddy fields by burrowing; jungle fowls peck sown paddy seeds. Leopards have also made their presence felt in two villages (Bagewala and Zurkhal) during the last decade but their occurrence was rare as compared to the other conflict animals. In addition to these, phayer’s leaf monkey gives rise to moderate conflict situations in a village named Ramprasadpur situated in the Innerline reserve forest under Hawaithang Range. Hence, it is concluded that frugivores, herbivores and carnivores are involved in conflicts with the residents of the forest villages of Barak Valley. This problem is likely to complicate conservation and management efforts and hence this problem must be properly addressed in the region. Although the conflict animals involved are not endangered, the intensity of their depredations at times surpass the economic threshold of the victims and this has a negative impact upon public perception on these animals.
确认
我们感谢阿萨姆邦巴拉克山谷三个地区的森林部门为研究提供了必要的许可,并在实地工作中提供了必要的协助。被调查的森林村庄的当地居民的合作也得到了高度肯定。我们还要感谢阿萨姆大学生态与环境科学系系主任Jayashree Rout教授的支持。
参考文献
- 解决人类与野生动物的冲突:野生动物损害管理的科学。刘易斯出版社CRC出版社,美国佛罗里达州博卡拉顿(2002)。
- 葛培理,贝克曼A. P.和瑟古德S. J.,生物学。Conserv。,122(2), 159–171 (2005).
- [3]吴德华,吴德华。人类与野生动物:冲突还是共存?]剑桥大学出版社,英国剑桥,1-12(2005)。
- 印度环境和森林部,野生动物、生态旅游和动物福利工作组报告th2012-2017年五年计划,提交给印度政府规划委员会,新德里,(2011)。
- 苏库马尔R., J. Trop。生态。,6, 33-53 (1990).
- 高海拔生存:跨喜马拉雅地区畜牧业与野生动物之间的冲突。博士论文,荷兰瓦赫宁根大学(2001)。
- 萨伯瓦尔,V. K,吉布斯,J. P,切拉姆,R.和约翰辛格,A. J. T,保守党。医学杂志。,8, 501-507 (1994).
- 冠军h·g和赛斯·s·K,印度的森林类型。德拉敦:森林研究所(1968)。
- Das P.和Joshi S., Envis Assam(10 - 12月),2-7(2012)。
- 乔杜里A.,印度东北部的哺乳动物,1圣版,长臂猿图书,古瓦哈提,印度和印度东北部犀牛基金会(2013)。
- 范宁,实践评价研究与评价(12),1-14(2005)。
- 2012.调查问卷设计。可在:http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/demogrph/pdf/questionnairedesign.pdf[访问日期:2012年8月12日]。
- Choudhury A.,阿萨姆邦哺乳动物清单,2nd版,吉本图书,古瓦哈提,印度与阿萨姆科学技术和环境理事会(1997)。
- Datta-Roy A., Ved N.和Williams A. C., Trop。生态。,50(1), 163-171 (2009).
- Espuno, N., Lequette, B., Poulle, m.l., Migot, P.和Lebreton, j.d., Wildl。Soc。公牛。,32, 1195−1208 (2004).
- Ogada, m.o, Woodroffe, R., Oguge, n.o.和Frank, l.g.,保守党。, 17, 1521−1530(2003)。
- Miah D. Md, Rahman L. Md和Ahsan F . Md, Tigerpaper, 28(4), 22-28(2001)。
- Chauhan N. P. S., Barwal K.S., Kumar D.,白银学报,5,189-197(2009)。