水分子是氢原子和氧原子的原子比为2:1，而根据氢和氧的质量比为1:8，它是一种无味的溶液，基本上存在于水道、溪流、湖泊、海洋、每一个生物和大气中。它是地球的主要成分，有多种形式。它是除任何天然补品外所有生物和非生物的必要来源。它持续地旋转，直到消失

Introduction Air temperature (T), one of the most important climatic parameters of mountain terrain in tourism industry,1 is considered as a key driver for many physical processes that influence the distribution of vegetation.2 Topography contributes greatly to the prevailing T conditions. Altitude (alt), in particular, seems to have a more distinguished influence on thermal environment in relation to other parameters, such as slope and aspect.3-5 In general, it is known that an incr

Introduction Soil heavy metal pollution is worldwide and in terrestrial ecosystems, soils dish up as the most important sink1,2 and generally considered to be originating either from geogenic or natural sources or the anthropogenic sources such as agrochemicals and mineral fertilizers, industrial wastes, sewage sludge etc.3,4,5,6 As a result of increasing population, urbanization, agricultural activities, heavy metal pollution in agricultural soils is the matter of concern

Introduction Forest fires are extensive and critical facet of the world. The annual global area burned due to forest fire ranges from 300 and 450 Mha.1 Over 80 percent of the global area burned occurs in grasslands and savannahs, primarily in South Asia, Africa, Australia and South America. Globally fires are frequent over most of the earth except in areas of scant vegetation and near the poles.2 India witnesses most of severe forest fires during the summer season in the hills of

Introduction Groundwater is becoming an increasingly scarce resource.1,2,3,4 With industrial and domestic water demand expected to double by 2050.5 competition among urban, peri-urban, and rural areas on groundwater resources is likely to increase. Increasing population and rapid urbanizationare already aggravating the demand on fresh water supply in the cities and it is expected to increase in future.6 The impact of climate change on precipitation patterns, river f

Introduction In the modern world, LULC is inevitable since human use their environment for their development. Human may use the atmosphere, surface and underground of the earth for development and on doing so they may affect the environment. Such changes occur as a result of complex processes that involve modifications in land-cover and land use,1 and they are determined by the interaction in space and time between biophysical and humans endeavors.2 Such processes include bu

Introduction The contribution of mining industry to the Indian economy is enormous; mining has contributed around 2.6% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in year of 2015-16 with 20% contribution of mining of minerals. Industrial development in any country is driven by iron & steel, because of the fact that it largely influences a country's economic status.1 The iron ore is an essential raw material used in the manufacturing of Iron & Steel. Thus, mining of iron ore has be

Introduction Crushed rock quarrying is a mining activity, largely carried out in most parts of the Federal Capital Territory Abuja, because of the availability of large deposits of rocks that adorn the city and obviously for socio-economic benefits. Quarrying is a destructive development activity whose socio-economic benefits may be unable to compensate for the overall detrimental effects on natural ecosystems as it produces immediate and long term undesirable effects in the environment an

Introduction River is a structure comprising the major route and the tributaries, the flow of which carrying an important load of substance in dissolved and particulate phases as of both natural and anthropogenic sources. The river Ganga is a holy and historic river of India. The river has the largest basin among the rivers covering 26.3% of the entire geographical region of Indian sub-continent. The river Ganga covers 475 km area in Bihar; Patna city is situated on the bank of the Ganga. The

Introduction Energy is fundamental need to achieve the unified economic, social and environmental aims of sustainable human development. India’s energy sector has grown tremendously in recent years. Further economic and population growth, allied to structural trends such as urbanization and industrialization, point to continued rapid expansion in demand for energy. It is found that the share of energy consumption in India and China has also been on the rise due to very fast growth r

Introduction Plant diversity patterns and composition can be influenced by several abiotic and biotic factors at different spatial scales. At local scales, plant diversity and composition are influenced by geophysical factors (i.e., soil, topography), land use, and biotic interactions. At regional scales, plant communities are influenced by climatic factors and biogeographical processes such as the action of pollinators and dispersal patterns.1 Islands nations like the Philippines

Introduction Whole-body vibration (WBV) is transmitted to the human body as a whole through supporting surfaces such as feet, buttocks and back.1 Exposure to WBV at work is linked to adverse effect on human health, discomfort and perception among others. Several factors are responsible for intensity of exposure to WBV arising from heavy earth moving equipment operators. These include machine related factors (vehicle type, design, age, condition of vehicle, suspension, seat arrangemen

Introduction 1 Pesticide residues in livestock generally accumulate by two ways, either applied to animals as insecticide – impregnated ear tag, spray, self-treatment back rubber, dust bags, injectable or through pesticide spray on agricultural crops and fodder. These compounds are primarily designed to kill insects, fungi, and weeds but have been found to be toxic. These pesticidal properties are unique and pose a threat to human health and environment.2 Pesticide

Introduction Importance of the renewable energy resources in the energy mix of the countries has been gaining importance worldwide. Growing population combined with increasing demand for domestic and industrial needs has been exerting huge stress on the energy sector. The environmental issues such as global warming, ozone layer depletion, climate change etc; warrant the utilization of conventional energy resources and emphasize the need for clean fuels in energy mix.1 The problem is more crit

Introduction A pond is a shallow body of water with a muddy bottom that has rooted plants growing from shore-to-shore. Because the depth is so shallow, water temperatures are fairly uniform from top to bottom but will change as air temperature fluctuates. Increasing urbanisation, industrialisation and excessive use of fertilizers , pesticides in the field windling the quality of water both qualitatively and quantitatively and depleting the aquatic fauna.1 Furthermore, there is a very

Introduction In 2015 not only most of the countries in world have adopted the agenda for sustainable development 2030 but also agree to take its 17 goals of the sustainable development. Even though 2.5 billion people from the world still, lack of access to developed sanitation facility.28 Though world achieves sanitation target but the Sustainable development goal 3 will not satisfying it is just because of lack of wastewater treatment facility. A developing country such as India whe

Introduction In recent centuries, the concentration of atmospheric CO2 has increased to 380 ppm, mainly due to anthropogenic activities.11 Forestation plays a very vital role in reducing CO2 through soil carbon sequestration.10 Carbon is found in all living organisms and is the main building block for life on earth. It is present in the soil organic matter, plants and animals, geologic deposits, atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) and dissolved in sea water. There is a nee

Introduction Water is one of the important and precious natural resources. Efficient use of water is important for agricultural production. At present, the use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture is increasing day by day but, the production of chemical fertilizers is lesser than its demand. Moreover, treated sewage water is rich both in organic matter and nutrients which fulfil the requirement of plants (particularly phosphorus and potash). It can be profitably utilized either as irrigatio